Out of Balāśagān
During the late period of Sassanid rule and early Islamic era, there was no mention of any presence of the Balāścik or the Baloch in Balāśagān. While there is mention of some Kurdish tribes in that region by Arab historians, there is no mentioning of what was happening to the ancient Baloch. However, during the decaying years of the Sassanid Empire and from the beginning of the Arab invasion of Iran, one can observe the presence of the Baloch in Deylam, Gilan, Kerman, Sistan, Makuran, and Turan. One can frame a scenario of the Baloch wanderings from Balāśagān to their present-day abode by correlating various historical happenings during the Achaemenid, Greek, Parthian, and Sassanid periods. Two phenomena could have been responsible for the exodus of the Baloch from Balāśagān: first would be a voluntary migration of the Baloch as a typical phenomenon of nomadic tribes, and the second could be forced migrations and resettlements of the Baloch by superior powers of the day. Or, both phenomena could have been happening at the same time.
Voluntary Migrations
The Baloch were pastoralist nomads, dependent upon domesticated animal husbandry—their economy was based on the herds and their products. Like other pastoralist nomads, they had routine migrations along established routes between focal grazing areas. The voluntary migrations of nomadic Baloch tribes in that sense could have been influenced by maintaining equilibrium between the resources of the natural environment and the economic needs of their people. Snow-covered meadows and the grasslands of Zagros and Alborz would have been unable to sustain a large number of grazing flocks in winter (Le Strange, 1905). Here, grazing would have been restricted to a few months of late spring, summer, and early fall during which the regions were ideal pastures and grazing grounds for sheep and goats. For the Baloch as a mobile nomadic group, however, it might have been important to find a combination of summer mountain pastures and winter grazing grounds to make animal husbandry economically viable. The great desert, the vast unsettled lands of Sistan, the planes around Kuh ay Bazman and Kuh ay Taftan, the mountain ranges of Makuran and Kerman, and the valleys of Turan might have provided formidable alternative pasturelands. These areas were mostly semiarid natural steppes with little agricultural but considerable pastoral potentials and would have been ideal environments for winter pastures.
In the above-mentioned context, in search of new grazing lands, the Baloch tribes might have gone as far as the boundaries of modern Balochistan. The Arab historian, Maqaddesi, quoted by Hansman (1961), noted the presence of the Balochi-speaking people in Punjgur a few decades after the conquest of Iran by the Arabs. He described Punjgur as the main town of Makuran, inhabited by Balochi-speaking people only nominally Muslim. Frye (1961) pointed out the presence and migration of the Baloch through Ɔaśť ay Lut desert at different times. It is highly probable that during these migrations to greener pastures, some of the neighboring ethnic groups and, most probably, some of the Kurdish and Jat tribes accompanied the migrating Baloch tribes. This is apparent from the presence of some of the Kurdish tribes in Balochistan, which have been merged with the greater Baloch identity. It is interesting to still find many Balochs in Kerman, southern Makuran, and around the Baśkarɔ region known as Kertiki. They are, most probably, originated from the Cyrtii (Kerti) and migrated along with the Balāścik from Balāśagān. Probably, this admixture of Kurdish and the Baloch tribes in these areas compelled some researchers to believe that Koch and Baloch were Kurds and Baloch, whose presence was mentioned at the end of the Sassanid era in Kerman, Sistan, and Makuran (Le Strange, 1905; Markwart, 1931). In this context, the volunteer migration of some tribes among the Baloch or their neighboring and allied tribes toward the aforementioned areas might not have been only due to changing political conditions in Balāśagān but also due to economic conditions.
During the Baloch stay in Balāśagān, the Romans fought a series of wars against Parthians and Sassanids and one of the battlegrounds was the region surrounding Balāśagān. In the ensuing tug of war for supremacy between the two superpowers, towns, fortifications, and provinces were continually sacked, captured, destroyed, or traded loyalties between these powers. Neither of these warring sides had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns far from their borders, and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching its frontiers being too thin, nevertheless, from time to time, both sides did make conquests beyond their border. One can easily imagine the plight of people living in these disturbed border regions of warring powers. The Balāścik probably thought it better to vacate the region rather than to be minced under the hooves of the horses of the great armies marching through their land.
Tribes or groups of tribes on their routine migratory sojourns to remote areas far from their original abode may opt to settle permanently in these new areas. The presence of some of the Baloch tribes in Sistan, Kerman, Makuran, and Turan during Sassanid or pre-Sassanid times can be explained in this manner.
Deportations and resettlements
Deportation which is the expulsion of a person or a group of people from their residence—had been a practice of various Iranian and other empires. Accounts of deportations of the whole population of Hatra and Dura-Europos had been well documented by ancient writers like Strabo, Arrian, and Herodotus. The Assyrian king Tiglathpileser III deported 65,000 Medes, replacing them with Aramaeans. In ancient chronicles, there is a graphic description of three deportations of Jews to Babylon in 597 BC, 587 BC, and 582 BC. In Iran, during the Median, Parthian, and Sassanid era, deportation was a common practice implemented to neutralize the unruly population. Cyrus the Great in 547 BC defeated the Lydians in the Battle of Sardis, and a part of the population appears to have been deported to Nippur in Babylonia. Although there were several mass deportations under the Achaemenids, reports of such events during the Parthian period are rare. However, during 176–171, the Parthian king of kings Phraates I settled the Mards in Charax and, later, deported them to the northeastern borders of the Parthian Empire (Rawlinson, 1873). It is noteworthy that Balāścik were living side by side with Mardis and other ethnic groups in Balāśagān at that time. During the Sassanid period, the peoples of the provinces along the eastern frontiers of the Roman Empire had endured several deportations. Sassanid Emperor Shahpur I (in his rock inscriptions) boasted about the people from the Roman Empire whom he had carried off as booty and settled in various parts of his empire such as Persis, Parthia, Khuzestan, Asoristan, and in other provinces (Wiesehofer, 2006). The mention of pillaging and burning of a whole region, including Balāśagān by Sassanid Emperor Shahpur as mentioned in the revised rock inscription of Kerdir is noteworthy in the context of disappearance of the Balāścik from that region.
It is difficult to learn exactly from limited sources about the extent of deportation of peoples within the Sassanid Empire; however, some accounts of persecutions of Christians and other religious sects by the Sassanid emperors have been presented by various authors. During AD 609, the Sassanid deported the whole population of conquered Edessa to Sistan and Khurasan (Frye, 1984). Theophanes (1997) reported the deportation of many thousands from Caesarea in Cappadocia. According to Theophanes (1997), after Armenia and Georgia came under Sassanid control in the reign of Emperor Shahpur II, the cities of Artashat, Valarshapat, Eruandashat, Zarehawan, Zarishat, Van, and Nakjavan were taken, and their populations deported. Balāśagān was situated in that region.
Resettlements of tribes and people within the Sassanid Empire during the reign of Khusrau I (AD 531–579) have been frequently mentioned in historical accounts (Pourshariati, 2008). The Arab historians writing on Persian history had mentioned the resettlement of the people of the Barez Mountains in different parts of the Sassanid Empire. They also recorded the resettlement of thousands of people belonging to Abkhaz, Banjar, Balanjar, and Alans in Azerbaijan and neighboring regions. The people identified by Baladhuri in Fotuh al Baladan as Siasijunn or Siasijiya were resettled in Emperor Khusrow’s newly built cities of Saberan, Masqat, Darband, Dabil, and Nakjavan and the castles of Ways, Kelab, and Sahyunis.
Tribes and ethnic groups described by ancient writers, including Strabo, as nomads, migrants, and predatory brigands included Cyrtians, Cadusii, Mardis, Caspians, and others (among these “others,” it is certain that the Balāścik were the main component). They seem to have had continual troubles with the Achaemenid, Greek, Parthians, and Sassanid central governments. It appears that as they were located on the important mountain passes along the trade routes joining Europe and Persia, the governments or powers of the time would give them “unofficial” authority of taking taxes from the caravans for their “safety.” Conflicts and troubles are inevitable when two groups holding unequal power bases try to make standstill arrangements. Excesses from either side could ignite troubles and taking into account the known independent behaviors of the people of Balāśagān and the surrounding regions, minor disagreements certainly could have caused violent battles with much bloodshed, most probably, ending up with deportations and forced migrations of the defeated populations.
According to Strabo, Arrian, and Herodotus, these predatory tribes mentioned above were living within the powerful empires of the period in a “love and hate” relationship (Herzfeld, 1968). When their relationship was normal, they fought for or alongside the Achaemenids, the Greeks, the Parthians, and the Sassanids while, during times of hostilities, they fought violent battles against them and, sometimes, faced the brunt of the powerful armies and often ended up with total rout and faced resulting genocide and deportations. The Achaemenids tried to pacify these predatory tribes with gift-giving as mentioned earlier; however, there is a description of a revolt about 405 BC, around the end of Emperor Darius II’s reign (Cook, 1983). There is evidence of an expedition against the Cadusii by the Sassanid Emperor Ardsher II during the great revolts around 380 BC; this expedition was a fiasco, and only diplomatic negotiations by the Satrap Tiribazus made a retreat possible, with the king himself marching away on foot (Olmstead, 1948). Sassanid Emperor Darius III is said to have been made satrap of Armenia after having defeated a rebellious Cadusian in one-on-one combat during an expedition against that tribe in the first years of Ardsher III’s reign. Alexander the Great refused to follow the Achaemenid modus vivendi with the mountain tribes, that is, he did not accept the notion of “not subject,” and by not giving “gifts” to these tribes, he chose to battle for their complete submission. One can easily imagine the disastrous consequences of a fight of these tribes with the mighty forces of the Macedonian conqueror.
The main reason for conflicts between the Baloch (and other ethnic groups in the region mentioned earlier) with the powerful empires, according to ancient historians of Iran and Greek, was the disruption of the trade due to the predatory activities of these tribes. Schoff (1914) and Cook (1983) observed that one of the important routes for trade caravans was the Royal Road, which stretched for hundreds of miles from Sardis in Asia Minor through Mesopotamia and down the Tigris to Susa. Other roads connected Babylon with Ecbatana, Bactria, and the borders of India. Persia was also linked with the Indus valley by a road through Makuran (Cook, 1983). In the west, a road ran from the Gulf of Issus through Asia Minor to Sinope. Another important commercial route ran south from Sardis to the Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor and thence to Tarsus, where it was connected with a road through the Cilician Gates and north to the Black Sea. The northern shore of the Black Sea was connected by road with Siberia via the southern Russian steppes and the Urals (Rostovtzeff, 1963). As observed by Lukonin (1988), securing these roads from robbers and other disruptions was important for the finances of the Persian Empire and stable relations with other powers in Asia and Europe.
Apart from the punitive nature of resettlements, allied tribes and peoples were also settled to frontier regions for military purposes to secure the border regions. Resettlement of allied tribes to change the demographic balance of a particular region might also be a kind of punitive action against the hostile tribes threatening the trade routes or the stability of the empire. In this context, the military purposes behind the resettlements within the empire were obvious. The resettlement of the Mards by the Parthians was intended to provide guards for the Caspian Gates. The settlement of Arab tribes in Bahrain and Kerman under Emperor Shahpur II was to bring hostile elements under control by dispersing them to remote areas.
Going through the detailed history of the Achaemenid Empire, it appears that earlier deportation of the Baloch might have occurred during the reign of Emperor Darius I. It has been mentioned in Iranian historical accounts that Kurds, Parthians, and many other ethnic groups rose against Darius, immediately after he captured the throne, by killing the so-called usurper. As the Baloch were in the same region where the opposition was built up against Darius I, it is most probable that the Baloch were among the people who were deported after the failure of the rebellion.
It is very interesting to note that despite the initial hostility between the Baloch and the Achaemenid Dynasty, the Baloch, on later occasions, also fought for the Persian kings of that dynasty. During Alexander’s campaigns against Iran, to counter the Macedonian advance, the Baloch were mentioned as being part of the doomed Achaemenid Army (Shustheri, 1925). Between 558 and 530 BC, the Baloch was a part of the army of King Kaus (Kai Khusrau). The Baloch were part of the army headed by General Aśkāś that was under the overall command of the king’s son, Siahwash.
. . . Then from his famous cavaliers, Kaous chose for him (Siahwash) twelve-thousand gallant warriors, while from the neighborhood of “Koch and Pars” he chose Baloch; and from the deserts of Saroch and warriors of Gilan, he chose for war twelve-thousand infantry and buckler men (Firdausi, 1908, p. 226).
On another occasion, when the king advanced to occupy Azerbaijan, Firdausi mentioned that the army of the king comprised of men of Gilan, Deylam, Baloch from the plains of Saroch, and the swordsmen of Koch.
Despite the evidence of Baloch being part of the Sassanid armies on many occasions, due to the high-handed policies of the Sassanid emperors, the Baloch never reconciled to the Persians. Disgust between the Persians and the Baloch is distinctly marked even to this day. The Baloch detest the Persians almost as strongly as they are detested by them. Perhaps, this inherent distrust between the Baloch and the Persians was one of the reasons for the defection of some of the Baloch tribes to invading Arabs during the last days of the Sassanid Empire.
It appears that the Baloch faced major deportations during the reigns of Sassanid emperors Shahpur (AD 309–379) and Anusherwan (Khusrau I), AD 531–579). There is, however, no concrete documentary evidence, but circumstantial evidence suggests that deportation, migration, or movements of the Baloch from their original abode began long before their persecutions by the Sassanid. However, from the accounts (by Shahnama and other medieval documents) of the Baloch encounters with powerful Sassanid emperors, it is easy to discern that the bulk of the Baloch population or migration en masse may have occurred during the Sassanid period. It is quite understandable that after the brutal campaigns by Anusherwan who was one of the mightiest emperors of the Sassanid Dynasty, and his boasting of the genocide of the Baloch, the situation for the surviving Baloch was untenable at their original abode. It would have also been natural for the surviving Baloch to evacuate the region. Consequently, they migrated en masse and scattered in different far-flung areas of the empire to survive and gain some breathing space.
As mentioned earlier, from the little documentary pieces of evidence mentioning the Baloch in ancient historical accounts, one can find that there was a “hate and love” relationship between the Baloch and various Iranian empires of the past. There is mention of the Baloch being part of armies of some of the reigning Achaemenid and Sassanid emperors. Firdausi dealt in detail with the relationship of the Baloch and the Sassanid Emperor Khusrau I (Anusherwan) in his famous book of kings (Shahnama) which itself was based on various ancient historical sources.
Firdausi (1915, pp. 241–243) narrated the campaign against the Baloch in one of his narrations:
The Shah marched thence to Hindustan and sojourned there.
At his commandment, all folk came to him,
Came seeking to ingratiate themselves,
And for two miles beside the Indus bank,
Where horses, elephants, brocades, and coins.
The great men all with the honesty of heart
And loyalty appeared before the Shah,
Who questioned them in accordance to their rank.
With a jocund heart the Shah departed thence:
Troops, steeds, and elephants fulfilled the world.
He went his way, and tidings came to him:—
‘The world is wasted by the Baluchis,
Till from exceeding slaughter, pillaging
And harrying, the earth is overwhelmed,
But greater ruin cometh from Gelan,
Then the heart of Anusherwan, the Shah, was sorrowful,
And grief commingled with his joy. He said
To the Iranians: “The Alans and Hind
Were, in the terror of our scimitars, like silk.
Now our realm is turned against us:
Shall we hunt lions and forego the sheep?”
One said to him: “The garden hath no rose
Without a thorn, O King! So too these marches,
Are ever troublesome and treasure-wasting.
As for Baloch the glorious Ardashir
Tried it with all his veteran officers,
But all his stratagems and artifices,
His feints, his labors, arms, and fighting failed.
And though the enterprise succeeded ill,
He cloaked the failure even to himself.”
This story of the thane enraged the Shah,
Who went upon his way toward Baluch.
Now when he drew near those lofty mountains,
He went around them with his retinue,
And his entire host encircled them about,
And barred the passage e’en to wind and ant.
The troops, like ants and locusts, occupied
The mountain-outskirts to the sandy desert.
A herald went his rounds about the host,
Proclaiming from the mountains, caves, and plains:—
“Whenever the Baluchis are seeking food,
If they are warriors and carrying arms,
Let not a single one of them escape.”
The troops, aware of the anger of the Shah,
Stopped every outlet with their horse and foot;
Few of the Baluchis or none survived.
No women, children, warriors were left.
All of them perished by the scimitar,
And all their evil doings had an end,
The world had quiet from their ravaging:
No Baluchi, seen or unseen, remained,
While on their mountains, so it came to pass,
The herds thenceforward strayed without a guard;
Alike on waste and lofty mountain-top,
The sheep required no shepherd. All the folk
Around thought nothing of past sufferings,
And looked on vale and mountain as their home.
Emperor Anusherwan did not follow the advice of one of his companions who forbade the king of kings not to undertake action against the Baloch as earlier Emperor Ardashir tried it and failed. According to Firdausi, peace prevailed upon the world with the annihilation of the Baloch. However, it appeared that some of the Baloch survived the genocide. It is most probable that the remaining uprooted Baloch scattered in various directions and settled in different regions of the empire out of sight and away from main administrative centers; or, perhaps, the remnants of the Baloch from Balāśagān may have been resettled in the remotest corners of the empire as was the norm of the Sassanid Empire in dealing with hostile elements. On several other occasions, Khusrau I (Anusherwan) made several terrific marches against the tribes of the northern regions for religious and administrative reasons. Perhaps, due to continued disturbances, the Baloch, to avoid the turbulent situations, or to avoid being the direct target of later actions, might have abandoned their original homeland in the hilly regions and moved relentlessly toward central, southern, and eastern parts of the Iranian Empire.
(courtesy : History Of The Ancient Baloch By Naseer Dashti, Published : Balochi Academy Quetta,2022)